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1:03with a word about a great podcast you should check out called History Daily. And we put together a little sampler for you. History Daily tells the fascinating stories of what happened on this day in history. There are new episodes Monday through Friday. The show offers up an eclectic mix of history, war, fashion, science, religion, sports, all those aspects of humanity that add up to the grand scope of human history. Episodes are easily digestible, always clocking in below the 20-minute mark. It's like a history snack that doesn't take that long to satisfy your appetite for the past.

1:36With History Daily, you'll learn amazing facts you've never heard before. And even if you think you know a certain day's events well, chances are you'll be surprised. History Daily's unofficial motto is History is Human. It's all about the overlooked and often forgotten human stories behind the names and dates of ordinary history. That's the podcast, History Daily. It's the morning of January 28, 1986, at an elementary school in Ohio.

2:12A young teacher walks through the crowded cafeteria. She surveys the hundreds of students whose eyes are glued to a television set that's been wheeled in on a cart. She joins other teachers at the back of the room, feeling just as excited as the students are. Today, the normal Tuesday morning lessons have been set aside. Instead, students and teachers watch a live television broadcast from Florida, where the Space Shuttle Challenger is about to blast off. Looking at the crowd of students, the young teacher considers how profound this moment is, and just how many young people are likely watching.

2:44And indeed, all across America, more than two and a half million students have tuned in for this momentous occasion. Over the past five years, there have been many space shuttle flights. But there has never been a mission like this one before. Among the seven astronauts on board is another school teacher named Krista McAuliffe. Krista is the winner of a competition to put an educator in space. The competition was put on by the American space agency, NASA. And today, in a lunchroom in Ohio, this young teacher is rooting for the success of her fellow educator

3:16as she prepares to go to space. The excitement grows in the cafeteria as the final countdown begins. And liftoff, liftoff of the 25th Space Shuttle Mission, and it has cleared the tower. The cafeteria erupts with cheers and excitement as Challenger soars into blue skies. The spacecraft climbs higher and higher, throttling up to a speed of a thousand miles an hour as it powers its way towards orbit. But then, after just over one minute, there's a sudden flash.

3:47The young teacher covers her mouth with her hands. The children don't know what they've seen. Their cheers give way to confused silence. On the television screen, a fireball blooms in the sky, and the camera quickly cuts away. The Challenger disaster, as it comes to be called, will take the lives of all seven astronauts on board, including Krista McAuliffe. The tragedy will play out in front of the astronauts' horrified families watching on the ground. And it will traumatize countless others who saw it unfold on television.

4:18The disaster will reveal a culture of complacency and recklessness at NASA. And it will call into question the very future of America's manned space program.

4:30From Noiser and Airship, I'm Lindsey Graham, and this is History Daily.

4:53History is made every day. On this podcast, every day, we tell the true stories of the people and events that shaped our world. Today is January 28th, the Challenger disaster.

5:06It's January 5th, 1972, 14 years before the Challenger fails to complete its mission. At the California residence of President Richard Nixon, a meeting is about to begin that will decide the future of manned space exploration. James Fletcher, the head of the American space agency NASA, waits in a corridor for the president. He's brought with him to the meeting a model of NASA's proposed new spacecraft, unlike anything flown before. But in order to build it and launch it into space, he needs Nixon's final approval.

5:39This new spacecraft has been in development for years. Even before NASA landed a man on the moon in 1969, there were discussions about what the next great project for the agency would be. Some thought the logical next step was to go to Mars. But Congress was already looking to cut NASA's budget, and the agency simply didn't have the political backing for a mission to the Red Planet. Instead, NASA decided to pursue a project that they hoped was less costly but just as ambitious. A project to prove that space exploration could be affordable and self-sufficient.

6:10After years of preliminary design and engineering and horse trading over the projected cost and planned capabilities, the result is the space shuttle. In the past, manned spacecrafts could only be used once. But the space shuttle is designed to be reusable, to go into space, return to Earth, and be ready to fly again in a matter of weeks. After Nixon arrives at the meeting, NASA Administrator James Fletcher shows him a model of the new spaceship. The president takes it and turns it this way and that as Fletcher explains the components of the design.

6:43The seven-astronaut crew will ride in a winged shuttle, or orbiter, that will carry them into space. The orbiter will be propelled into the sky by a large external fuel tank, the one expendable part of the spacecraft used only for liftoff. Attached to the fuel tank are two reusable solid booster rockets that will be jettisoned after they run out of fuel, parachuted down to the Earth, and later recovered in the sea. And at the end of every mission, the winged orbiter will re-enter the Earth's atmosphere and glide down through the sky to land on a runway.

7:15Fletcher tells Nixon that the program promises a tenfold reduction in the cost of spaceflight. With a fleet of such space shuttles, the agency will be able to launch a mission as often as every week. And by delivering both military and civilian satellites into orbit, Fletcher explains space exploration will finally add to the government's revenue and the economy. The meeting was scheduled to last just 15 minutes, but Fletcher and the president end up speaking for almost an hour. Later that day, the Nixon administration announces that NASA will receive funding for the space shuttle program.

7:46It's early morning on November 16, 1982. More than 10 years have passed since the meeting between NASA Administrator James Fletcher and President Richard Nixon. After over a decade of work on the program, the space shuttle Columbia glides down through an overcast sky. Below, stretching out across California's Mojave Desert, is Edwards Air Force Base and the runway where the Columbia is set to land. After five days in space, the shuttle's first, fully operational mission is about to come to an end.

8:22Despite the success, for NASA, it's been a long and difficult journey to get to this point. The agency planned to build a whole fleet of reusable shuttles. But ten years after the program was announced, only one has been finished, the Columbia. Two more orbiters are under construction, the Discovery and the Challenger. But NASA's promise of weekly shuttle flights to drive down the cost of space travel now seems hollow.

8:47Despite their enthusiasm and confidence at the outset of the program, the space shuttle program has been plagued with design problems, manufacturing delays, budget overruns, and terrible publicity. Even this first mission has not gone perfectly. The Columbia successfully carried two commercial satellites into orbit as planned, but a scheduled spacewalk had to be abandoned due to technical problems. Then, at 6.33 a.m. on November 16, 1982, the Columbia touches down at Edwards Air Force Base. As it lands on the runway, the shuttle looks more like a commercial airliner than a rocket ship,

9:21with its brilliant white tiles gleaming in the morning light. As the orbiter coasts to a gentle stop, onlookers cheer and applaud with delight. This is a good day for NASA. But the agency knows one shuttle and one mission is not enough to win over the public and the skeptical politicians in Washington. Over the next two years, Columbia is joined by two more orbiters, Discovery and Challenger. But even with this fleet of three shuttles, the promised weekly flights fail to materialize. Instead, months pass between each shuttle mission.

9:54And pressure increases on NASA to fulfill the promises made to President Nixon all those years ago. Eager for some much-needed good publicity, in 1984, NASA will launch a new initiative to take an ordinary American into orbit. The agency hopes the Teacher in Space program will transform the reputation of the beleaguered space shuttle and give one lucky educator the experience of a lifetime.

10:29It's October 16th, 1985, three months before the Challenger disaster. America's first citizen astronaut, 37-year-old Krista McAuliffe, is weeks into her training. She sits in the back of an airplane, waiting to take off. The Teacher in Space project was launched by President Ronald Reagan in August 1984. It was designed to inspire the next generation of scientists and engineers, and give NASA a welcome dose of good publicity after a difficult time for the agency. McAuliffe was one of more than 11,000 applicants.

11:01She had little confidence she would be selected, since she waited to the last possible moment to apply. So she was shocked when on July 19th, 1985, Vice President George Bush announced from the Roosevelt Room of the White House that she was the winner. A social studies teacher from New Hampshire impressed NASA's judges with her enthusiasm, her character, and charm. But today is a day Krista's been dreading. She's about to take a ride on a plane many astronauts call the Vomit Comet. It's a specially modified Boeing 707 that takes astronauts high into the sky.

11:35And by flying a series of steep dives and climbs, the plane mimics the weightlessness astronauts experience in space. It's a vital part of training. And it's not Krista's first time on the Vomit Comet, but still she is nervous. She felt very queasy on her last flight, and almost got sick. Today, she hopes she's able to keep it together again, so that the crew of the Challenger, all professional astronauts, won't lose respect for her. As the plane takes off, McAuliffe wonders whether she made the right decision. She has a family at home, and students at school who need her.

12:07She questions whether her dream of going into space is selfish. But just then, the modified 707 levels off from its climb and enters a dive. McAuliffe floats, weightless, in the air of the cabin. She catches the eye of one of her fellow crew members, who smiles as he drifts past her. She laughs, the sheer joy of the moment banishing all her doubts. But there is one man who does not feel joy about the upcoming Challenger mission. Engineer Alan McDonald fears that if launch goes forward as planned, Krista McAuliffe and the rest of the crew might be in danger.

12:40Alan's concerns center around a shuttle component called the O-ring, a large rubber gasket that seals the solid rocket booster. Alan is deeply familiar with these rocket boosters. He works as an engineer for the company NASA contracted to help build them. The long, cylinder-shaped rocket is made up of several sections, or segments, that are held together by a series of joints, which are sealed by the rubber O-rings. Alan knows the O-rings are supposed to contain hot, high-pressure gases that are produced during takeoff. And if just one of them were to fail, gases may leak and combust, and the rocket might explode.

13:16Alan has been concerned about the integrity of these O-rings for some time, especially in cold weather conditions, which makes Alan very uncomfortable about the upcoming launch. The temperatures on the day of the Challenger launch will likely fall to 26 degrees or lower, making it the coldest launch in NASA's history. The night before the scheduled takeoff, Alan is asked to sign a document recommending the Challenger for launch. He refuses, citing safety concerns related to the O-ring. But the higher-ups at NASA do not heed Alan's warning.

13:49On January 28, 1986, Alan gets up at 4.30 in the morning and heads to the Launch Control Center in Florida. After he finds his seat, he scans the video monitors and sees large icicles hanging from the shuttle and the supporting equipment. He thinks to himself, surely they aren't going to launch this thing today. And at three hours to takeoff, NASA officials do briefly pause the countdown to send an ICE team to assess the situation. The team members see a thick buildup of ICE, and they report it back to their superiors.

14:22But NASA doesn't delay the launch. They resume the countdown and order the ICE team to remove as much ICE as possible before liftoff. Alan is shocked and terrified. At 11.38 a.m., the final countdown begins. When the shuttle's main engines roar to life, Alan breaks into a cold sweat. But as the shuttle lifts off the ground, he relaxes for a moment. He feared the O-rings would fail on liftoff and that the shuttle would never make it off the pad. As he watches the Challenger climb into the sky, he breathes a sigh of relief.

14:54But then, 73 seconds into the flight, Alan's worst fears come true when the Challenger starts to break apart before going up in flames, killing all seven astronauts on board. But for Alan, there is no time to mourn. The very next day, he hops on a plane and heads to the Huntsville Operations Support Center, a facility at the Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama. There, he will join the rest of NASA's fail team to determine what went wrong. It's January 29, 1986, at the Huntsville Operations Support Center, the day after the Challenger disaster.

15:42Inside the facility, Alan gathers with other members of NASA's fail team to determine what went wrong less than 24 hours ago. But Alan is confident a failed O-ring is not to blame. If one had failed, Alan is certain the shuttle would never have made it off the launch pad. Alan agrees with the consensus of the fail team the problem was likely caused by an engine failure or an issue with the larger fuel tank. The next day, Alan gathers his things and heads for the airport. As he steps outside the building, another member of the team frantically runs after him

16:12and instructs him to come back. When Alan asks why, team member explains that one of their colleagues saw something while watching film of the takeoff. Hot gas coming out of a hole in the side of the right solid rocket booster. Incredulous, Alan replies, tell him he doesn't know what the hell he's talking about. A solid rocket isn't going to take off with holes in the side. The team member encourages Alan to come back and see for himself. While watching a video of the Challenger liftoff from a different angle, Alan and his colleagues notice a black plume of smoke emanating from the right solid rocket booster

16:47moments before it catches fire. But the smoke is not coming from a hole on the shell of the rocket, as his colleague believes. It's coming from inside the rocket, from the joint the O-ring is designed to seal. Seeing this, Alan realizes he was right, at least in part. Due to the cold weather, the O-ring did fail to seal the joint, causing gas to leak and combust. But the Challenger didn't immediately explode as Alan feared it would. Soon, Alan discovers why. The extreme heat from the combustion melted materials inside the rocket,

17:19temporarily sealing the joint shut and enabling the Challenger to lift off and take flight, but only for a tenuous 73 seconds before the seal broke again and the rocket went up in flames. In the wake of the disaster, Alan tells his wife that he blames himself for not doing more to stop the launch. For Alan, the next few months are extremely difficult. After being demoted at work, he's called to testify before a presidential commission of astronauts, scientists, and politicians. He tells them that he tried to warn NASA about the O-ring issue, but they didn't listen.

17:53When the commission publishes its final report, they blame NASA's leadership, and they offer a series of recommendations to improve safety in the future. The commission also forces Alan's employer to reinstate him and put him in charge of redesigning the rocket booster. Alan makes the most of his second chance. The improvements he helps orchestrate result in over 100 successful shuttle missions with no rocket booster issues. Alan retires in 2001 after 42 years on the job. But two years later, another disaster will strike

18:26when the space shuttle Columbia breaks apart in the skies over Texas, killing all seven astronauts on board. The subsequent investigation reveals that the Columbia disaster was caused by many of the same institutional failures that led to the Challenger disaster decades earlier. As a result, NASA shutters its space shuttle program. Still, the endeavor of space exploration endures. NASA and other agencies worldwide continue to find new, innovative ways to explore space. But as they do, these institutions would be wise to remember the words of Alan MacDonald.

19:00In my career, I don't know how many times people have raised their hand and said, this may be a dumb question, but... I always tell them I've never, ever heard a dumb question. But I've heard a lot of dumb answers. If Alan's story is remembered, perhaps the world will never again witness the kind of tragedy that occurred when the Challenger broke apart in the skies over Florida on January 28, 1986.

19:28Next on History Daily, January 31, 1874, Jesse James and the James Younger Gang commit one of the most infamous crimes in the American Old West. From Noiser and Airship, this is History Daily. Hosted, edited, and executive produced by me, Lindsey Graham. Audio editing by Molly Bach. Music and sound design by Lindsey Graham. This episode is written and researched by William Simpson. Executive producers are Stephen Walters for Airship and Pascal Hughes for Noiser. It's baseball, but so much more.

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21:08Whether you're celebrating mom, dad, or your favorite grad, not all of us are great planners, and with the Uber Eats gift tub, you don't have to be. Send flowers, perfume, champagne, or just their favorite meal straight to their door. Gifts arrive in as little as 25 minutes, and you can add a personalized video message for that additional so-not-last-minute touch. So this spring, get a leg up on gift-giving with Uber Eats, last-minute gifts that land every time. Must be 21 or older to purchase alcohol. Product availability varies per region. See app for details. It's December 20th, 1803, in New Orleans.

21:49Behind the closed door of a meeting room, three men prepare to seal one of the greatest real estate deals in history. Commanding General of the U.S. Army, James Wilkinson, watches as Louisiana's French governor, Pierre-Clement de la Salle, signs a document that will officially transfer the Louisiana Territory to the United States. The signing done, the men rise to exchange handshakes. Wilkinson watches as Louisiana's last French governor shapes the hand of William C.C. Claiborne, Louisiana's first American governor.

22:20With this exchange, the Louisiana purchase is finally complete. Wilkinson walks to the nearest window and draws the curtain to peer out of the crowd gathering outside. He watches as a color guard pulls down the French flag and raises the U.S. flag in its place. Then, as Wilkinson opens the window, he hears cheers erupt from the city's American settlers. Wilkinson can't help but notice the grim faces on the city's Spanish and French residents in the crowd. They're not sure what's coming, and Wilkinson isn't smiling either. Though President Thomas Jefferson himself

22:51entrusted Wilkinson to take possession of the Louisiana Territory, Wilkinson does not support American expansion. He doesn't say it out loud. He keeps his true opinion secret because he's a spy serving the Spanish Empire. And today's landmark achievement for the growth of American territory spells trouble for the nation he has secretly pledged his allegiance to. At 530 million acres, the Louisiana purchase will double the size of the United States. But the purchase won't end Jefferson's expansionist ambitions.

23:22In just a few months, news of Thomas Jefferson's newest exploratory undertaking will reach Wilkinson. A double agent will immediately warn the Spanish of Jefferson's upcoming westward venture, an expedition that will send Americans all the way to the Pacific Ocean. An expedition led by two men, Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, who will begin their return from exploring the West on March 23rd, 1806. From Noiser and Airship, I'm Lindsey Graham,

23:55and this is History Daily. History is made every day. On this podcast, every day, we tell the true stories of the people and events that shaped our world. Today is March 23rd, 1806, the return of Lewis and Clark.

24:30It's January 18th, 1803, 11 months before France transfers the Louisiana Territory to the United States. President Thomas Jefferson sits at a desk in the White House, a blank sheet of paper before him. Jefferson's mind races as he prepares to come up with a way to finance an expedition to the Pacific Ocean. For decades, Jefferson read about the Western frontier and dreamed of its exploration, hoping to build what he calls an Empire of Liberty. Now Jefferson feels like his vision might finally be coming to fruition.

25:01Negotiations are underway to purchase the Louisiana Territory from France, and so are plans to venture beyond that territory. Recently, Jefferson requested permission from Spain for a scientific expedition to cross Spanish territory. Spain rejected the request, but Jefferson remains undeterred. The expedition will go ahead with or without Spain's approval. All Jefferson needs is money, and so he sits trying to craft the perfect words that will help him accomplish his goal. Jefferson must be careful how he phrases this request to Congress.

25:32He knows the Constitution doesn't give Congress the right to finance exploration outside the nation's borders, so he needs to frame this delicately. Jefferson decides to describe the enterprise as a step towards extending commerce. The expedition, he writes, will make allies of Western native tribes, uncover the best trade routes, and reveal the continent's geography, all in the interests of commerce. Jefferson is confident that no one in Congress will have a reason to oppose such an expedition, unless they know about Spain's refusal to approve it.

26:03So Jefferson decides to withhold that information in his letter to Congress. Instead, Jefferson tells Congress that Spain will regard the expedition as a scientific pursuit and will take no issue. Satisfied, Jefferson hands the letter off to a messenger, who delivers it to his colleagues in Congress. In the end, Jefferson's deception works. Congress approves the request. Jefferson will then appoint his personal secretary, Meriwether Lewis, to be the leader of an expedition company they will call the Corps of Discovery. Lewis will bring on board an old friend

26:34named William Clark. Together, the two frontiersmen will serve as the expedition's co-captains. And on May 14th, 1804, after many months of preparation, these two men and their 45-person crew will depart from St. Louis, heading up the Missouri River to begin their long journey west. It's August 1st, 1804, in the Spanish territory of New Mexico, three months after Lewis and Clark began their westward trek. Atop his horse,

27:05Pedro Villal looks beyond him at the 52 soldiers, mercenaries, and allied Native Americans awaiting his orders to leave Santa Fe. He runs through his mental checklist, making sure no critical supply or person is missing. Villal knows the journey ahead will be a long one. A French explorer and frontiersman, Villal works for the Spanish government as a guide and interpreter, roles informed by years of living among the Comanche and Wichita Indians. But today, his job is a little different. Villal has been selected to lead an armed expedition

27:35to track down Lewis and Clark. Five months ago, word came from a Spanish spy named General James Wilkinson that the departure of a U.S. expedition to the Pacific was imminent. To Spain, the expedition does not feel scientific. It feels imperialist. Spanish officials surmise that a successful return by Lewis and Clark could put a target on the territory that Spain has occupied for centuries. And so they've decided to put a stop to it, selecting Pedro Villal as the man for the job. After finishing

28:06his mental inventory, Villal signals his men to begin their pursuit of the American expedition. One month and 600 miles later, Villal and his men finally reach a large Pawnee Indian settlement in present-day Nebraska. Soon, Villal begins giving presents to the local chiefs. Part of his job is to endear the tribes to the Spanish while instilling fear in them of the land-hungry Americans. Villal hopes the chiefs will be able to steer them towards the Lewis and Clark expedition. And eventually, Villal learns that a group of American traders

28:37were in the area two weeks ago. But it's anyone's guess where they are now. Unable to predict Lewis and Clark's location, Villal returns to New Mexico empty-handed. But the Spanish will not give up on stopping Lewis and Clark. Villal will lead several more attempts to intercept the core of Discovery. But all will be unsuccessful. By the time Villal and his men arrive back in New Mexico, Lewis and Clark will be many miles north, beginning construction on a wintertime fort near the villages of the Mandan and Hadatsta Indians.

29:07It's in these villages that Lewis and Clark will find a fateful addition to the core of Discovery, a girl named Sacagawea. It's November 4th, 1804, in present-day North Dakota, six months into the Corps of Discovery's expedition. Captain Meriwether Lewis inspects a handful of soil,

29:37making note of its properties before returning it to the Earth. Lewis jots down a final note before closing his journal filled with information from President Jefferson. Satisfied with the day's observations, Lewis is ready to find whatever warmth he can at the expedition's new campground. After six months of traveling the Missouri River, the Corps of Discovery began construction on a fort just two days ago. Fortunately for the expedition, the Hadatsta and Mandan tribes have been eager to establish peace. Lewis is therefore thankful that this is the place where they will spend the long months ahead.

30:09As Lewis nears the entrance to the encampment, an unfamiliar man stops him. He introduces himself as Toussaint Charbonneau. He is a French-Canadian trader who lives in the nearby Hadatsta villages, and he has a proposition for Lewis. Charbonneau wants to be hired as an interpreter for the expedition. Lewis takes a moment to mull this proposal over. They are in need of interpreters, but Charbonneau has nothing new to offer him. They already have a man who speaks Hadatsta and French, but Charbonneau insists he has more talents than that.

30:39Lewis' ears perk up as he hears that Charbonneau's wife is a Shoshone Indian. The Shoshone tribe lives in the Rocky Mountains and has many horses. Lewis knows horses are exactly the thing the Corps of Discovery will need to take their baggage across the mountains. And to get horses from the Shoshone, they will need someone who can speak the language. Soon, Lewis will meet Charbonneau's wife, Sacagawea, a heavily pregnant 16-year-old girl. In three months, Lewis will aid in the delivery of Sacagawea's son. And just two months after giving birth

31:10with an infant on her back, Sacagawea will set off with the Corps of Discovery as the expedition's only woman.

31:20It's the morning of August 17, 1805, in present-day Montana. Sacagawea walks alongside expedition co-captain William Clark. In the river beside her, canoes filled with expedition members follow their lead. Together, they search anxiously for any sign of Captain Merriweather Lewis. For weeks, morale has been sinking. They needed to find the Shoshone Indians quickly, but their travel by water was slow. The fate of the expedition hinges on the Shoshone and their horses. Without them, there's no way the expedition

31:51can cross the Rocky Mountains before winter. Several days ago, Lewis and Clark split up, hoping to accelerate their search for the Shoshone. But reuniting has proven difficult. Members of the expedition are growing anxious. But Sacagawea can't help but savor the slow journey. Though she lives among the Hidatsa, Sacagawea belongs to the Shoshone tribe. When she was 12 years old, a Hidatsa raiding party captured her and took her thousands of miles away to the Hidatsa villages in North Dakota. It's there that Charbonneau purchased her

32:21and she became one of his multiple wives. As Sacagawea scans the horizon for Lewis, the familiar landscape evokes memories of her childhood and she wonders how much time she has left here before she will once again have to say goodbye to her native land. But the sound of horses interrupts Sacagawea's reflection. She cheers and breaks into dance as her eyes register several men on horseback. It's the Shoshone and as the tribesmen draw near, Sacagawea notices they're traveling with one of the men Lewis took with him.

32:52Soon, Lewis' man leads Clark, Sacagawea, and the rest upriver where Lewis is waiting to reunite with them and begin negotiations with the Shoshone. As they arrive at the Shoshone camp, Sacagawea immediately feels eyes on her. One young native girl weaves through the crowd of onlookers and walks right up to Sacagawea. As the girl draws near, recognition sets in. It's Sacagawea's childhood friend. They were together when Sacagawea was captured during the Hadassah raid, but the young girl managed to escape.

33:23Sacagawea holds her friend tight, determined that this time she will not let her go. But their reunion is interrupted by voices calling Sacagawea's name. Soon, Sacagawea heads to the tent where negotiations between Lewis and the tribe's chief are underway. Sacagawea quickly sits down to do her job as interpreter. But as she turns to speak to the chief, Sacagawea finds herself staring into the face of her own brother. Weeping profusely, Sacagawea hugs the first family member she's seen in years.

33:53Sacagawea's connection to the tribe will ingratiate Lewis and Clark to the Shoshone chief who will provide horses and guides to lead the expedition over the Rocky Mountains. On November 15, 1805, 18 months after leaving St. Louis, the group finally reaches the Pacific Ocean, but their joy at arriving at their final destination will not last long. It's the morning

34:26of March 22, 1806 at Fort Clatsop, the Corps of Discovery's wintertime fort on the Oregon coast. Captain Meriwether Lewis walks outside his cabin and looks up at the sky. It's been a long, miserable winter. Like everyone else, Lewis is eager to return home, but stormy conditions have made departure impossible. But today, the sky is crystal clear. Encouraged by the weather, Lewis and Clark agree to depart the next day, but Lewis knows the return trip will be dangerous. He fears that should they perish,

34:57the world will never know they made it to the coast. But right at this moment, Lewis sees a familiar face enter the camp, the chief of the Clatsop Indians, a tribe native to the region. The natives in this area have been eager to trade, but not to socialize, except for Chief Koboway. He's been kind, friendly, and hospitable. So today, Lewis decides to make Koboway an offer. His Clatsop tribe can take possession of their camp and all its furnishings after they're gone, but Lewis needs something in return. Lewis hands Koboway

35:27a list of all the names of the expedition's participants and asks the chief to keep it safe. Lewis explains that if they don't make it home, the world needs to know that they reached the Pacific. So with Koboway's assurance that he will preserve the document, Lewis returns to his cabin, feeling more ready than ever to begin the journey back home. At noon the following day, the Corps of Discovery will finally leave Fort Clatsop, beginning their trek home on March 23rd, 1806. With endurance and supplies severely depleted,

35:58the trek back east will be filled with fatigue and danger. But on September 23rd, 1806, seven months to the day after their departure from Fort Clatsop, the explorers arrive back in St. Louis. With their return, Lewis and Clark bring home new knowledge of the continent's geography and the transformative realization that land travel to the Pacific is possible. Soon, traders and empire builders will flood the West. Among them is a prominent fur trader and captain of the British Royal Navy named Alexander Henry.

36:29In 1813, Henry will visit Fort Clatsop and meet Chief Koboway, who will present him with Lewis's list of the expedition's members, a document Koboway safeguarded for seven years. But he watches with dismay as Henry throws the carefully preserved document into a fire. Henry's action portends the hostility of the imperial rivalries that will soon dominate the region, rivalries that will cause irreparable damage to the land's indigenous populations. Just a few decades after meeting Lewis and Clark, the Clatsop tribe

37:00will be forced to cede 90% of their land to the U.S. government, a tragic outcome to a story of exploration that entered a new chapter when Lewis and Clark began their return east on March 23rd, 1806.

37:19Next on History Daily, March 24th, 1603. After a reign of 44 years, Queen Elizabeth I of England dies, bringing the Tudor dynasty to its end. From Neuser and Airship, this is History Daily, hosted, edited, and executive produced by me, Lindsey Graham. Audio editing by Derek Behrens. Music and sound design by Lindsey Graham. This episode is written and researched by Alexandra Curry-Buckner. Executive producers are Stephen Walters for Airship and Pascal Hughes for Neuser.

38:01and Speak of what A